Which of the following can affect monetary policy?

Open market operations are a key tool used by central banks, such as the Federal Reserve, to implement monetary policy. By buying or selling government securities in the open market, the central bank can influence the amount of money circulating in the economy, which in turn affects interest rates and overall economic activity. When the central bank purchases securities, it injects liquidity into the banking system, encouraging lending and spending. Conversely, selling securities takes money out of circulation, which can help to cool down an overheating economy.

This direct control over the money supply through open market operations allows central banks to respond to changing economic conditions, manage inflation, and stabilize the currency. Other options, while they may have economic implications, do not directly influence monetary policy in the same way. Tax legislation, state budget proposals, and social welfare programs primarily fall under fiscal policy and government spending, which are separate from the mechanisms of monetary policy.